An Introduction To Diabetes Mellitus

An Introduction To Diabetes Mellitus Diabetes mellitus was recognized as early as 1500 B.C. by Egyptian Physicians, who described it as a disease associated with the passage of much urine. The term diabetes (the Greek for Siphon) was coined by the Greek Physician Aretaeus the Cappadocian around A.D.2. In 1674 a physician named Willis coined the term Diabetes Mellitus (from the Greek word for Honey).1, 2 Diabetes mellitus is a complex syndrome that affects multiple organ systems. It is now clear that diabetes is a heterogeneous group of disorders that are elicited secondary to various genetic predispositions and precipitating factors.3 Diabetes mellitus is a chronic disease that is characterized by disorders in carbohydrate, protein and lipid metabolism. Its central disturbance appears to involve an abnormality either in the secretion of or effects produced by insulin although other factors also may be involved.4 Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder in which carbohydrate metabolism is reduced while that of proteins and lipids is increased.5 The external secretion of the pancreas is digestive in function and the intestinal secretions play a major role in the regulation of metabolism. The hormones which regulate the level of blood sugar are mainly two; glucagon from the alpha-cells and insulin from the beta-cells of the islets of langerhans.6 Glipizide is 200 times more potent than tolbutamide in evoking pancreatic secretion of insulin. It differs from other oral hypoglycemic drugs where in tolerance to this action apparently does not occur.9 It also upregulates insulin receptors in the periphery, which seems to be the primary action. It has a special status in the treatment of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus because it is effective in many cases which are resistant to all other oral hypoglycemic drugs. It differs from other oral hypoglycemic drugs ie more effective during eating than during fasting. Over the year controlled drug delivery technology has a wide advances. Due to its high potential a bioadhesive system place a major role in controlling drug release. Mucoadhesive system prolong the residence time of the dosage form at the site of application or absorption and facilitate an therapeutic performance of the drug. Recent interest has been expressed in the delivery of drug via mucus membrane by the use of adhesive materials on which studies are been intensively undertaken.58 Glipizide is an oral antidiabetic drug, belonging to the sulphonylurea group. Presently the drug is marketed in conventional dosage form of tablet in usual strength of 2.5 to 20 mg. When the drug is administered by this route, about 50% of drug is metabolized in the liver to the several inactive metabolites. Hence there is need of the alternative route administration to avoid first pass hepatic metabolism.7 More over the combination of anti-diabetic drugs with NSAIDS are not available in market. Physicochemical properties of this drug like small dose, lipophilicity, stability at buccal pH, odourlessness, tastelessness, low molecular weight etc. makes it an ideal candidate for administration by buccal route. For hydrophilic substances, the rate of absorption is a function of the molecular size. Small molecules (

Importance of History and Context Considerations for Clients

Importance of History and Context Considerations for Clients Historical and Contextual Considerations for Clients Siobhan L. Healy Abstract This paper discusses four cases in total, two from the perspective of a psychologist in private practice and two from the perspective of a school psychologist. First, we will be covering two clients who visited Dr. Goldstein’s private practice: Client #1: Brian, a 28 year old, married father of a two year old daughter and a six month old infant son, is expressing a feeling of unhappiness. He states that he is miserable, making everyone around him miserable. Client #2: Cindy, a 41 year old, recently divorced woman without children and high school education is not able to relax and worries about something all the time. She experiences a feeling of â€Å"going crazy†. Next, we will be discussing two clients Dr. Venneman, the school psychologist, is covering: Client #1: Rosie, a 7-year-old second-grader from an intact family has recently moved into the school district and was referred for experiencing academic difficulties concerning reading and writing, as well as social difficulties with her classmates. Client #2: Marco, a 17 year old high school student was referred for failing grades and refusal to follow course sequences. He is considering dropping out of school. The hypothesis for this paper is, that, when clinicians are able to gather enough information about their clients’ history and weave together pertinent data to get a clear picture of each case, they will be able to use the correct assessment in order to design a treatment plan. According to Groth-Marnat, the evaluation of the referral question in each case is of great importance. An inaccurate clarification of a problem can result in practical limitations of psychological evaluations. It is the clinicians’ responsibility to provide useful information and to clarify the requests they receive, and each clinician is aware of the value and the limitations of psychological tests. Furthermore, clinicians should not assume that requests for evaluation and referrals are adequately described or elaborated on. In fact, clinicians may need to uproot unspoken expectations of clients and uncover interpersonal relationships and hidden agendas. Limitations of psychological tests need to be explained to clients and the clinician is required to fully understand the vocabulary, dynamics, referral setting, and conceptual model (Groth-Marnat, 2003). Because clinicians are rarely asked to provide a general or global assessment, but are instead expected to answer specific questions, they need to address these questions and should contact the source of the referral at various stages in the assessment process. In an educational evaluation, such as in Rosie’s and Marco’s case, the school psychologist should observe the student in the classroom environment. The information gathered from such an observation should then be relayed back to the source of the referral (school) in order to get further clarification and, possibly, a modification of the initial referral question (Groth-Marnat, 2003). After gaining insight into the referral question, clinicians should proceed with the collection of information. A variety of sources may be used for this purpose, such as personal history, interview data, behavioral observations, and test scores. Furthermore, clinicians could obtain any previous psychological evaluations, medical records, police reports, school records, or they could discuss the current issues with the client and/or with parents or teachers (Groth-Marnat, 2003). For example, Dr. Goldstein could ask his client, Brian, the 28 year old father of two small children, a few background questions, such as, â€Å"when did you first experience the feeling of unhappiness and what exactly do you do to make everyone around you miserable†, or â€Å"how was your marriage before the birth of your children†, â€Å"what may be additional stress factors besides the overwhelming task of having two young children†, and â€Å"how is your social life†? Furthermore, Dr. Goldstein should explore any possible medical reasons for Brian’s â€Å"unhappiness†. Once the clinician has ruled out certain factors that may be contributing to Brian’s condition, he may be able to pinpoint the cause of his unhappiness and determine that Brian is simply and temporarily overwhelmed by the addition of a new baby to an already stressful life. After all, additionally to having to go to work to financially support a family of four, Brian is most likely sleep deprived due to his infant son’s irregular sleep pattern. Ultimately, Brian’s wife and daughter may be placing unreasonable demands on him by asking for more help and attention. Most likely this phase will pass and the clinician will be able to design a solid assessment and treatment plan. Dr. Goldstein’s second case of Cindy, the 41 year old, divorced female, may be a complex one to examine. Once again, Dr. Goldstein should ask Cindy questions such as â€Å"what were the reasons for your recent divorce†, and â€Å"when did you first experience the feeling of â€Å"going crazy† and how does it present†, â€Å"what kind of worries are the most prevalent and what have you tried to do in order to relax†? After ruling out a medical problem, the clinician should examine Cindy’s situation carefully, as it sounds like she may be suffering from anxiety and depression due to her recent divorce. After the divorce, she may have also lost common friends she shared with her partner. The divorce may have left her financially and emotionally drained and she may be going through a midlife crisis. In cases like that, the potential for substance abuse as a coping mechanism can be high. With detailed information about Cindy’s background, D r. Goldstein should be able to create a thorough assessment and a feasible treatment plan. In the case of Rosie, the 7-year-old second-grader from an intact family who recently moved to a new school district, the school psychologist, Dr. Venneman, should obtain any and all school and medical records and he should gather as much information from Rosie’s parents and current and former teachers (or principals). Dr. Venneman should explore whether Rosie had any academic issues in her former school. She may have to get an eye exam to rule out a vision problem since her decreasing performance involves reading and writing. After ruling out any medical problems, Dr. Venneman should find out if Rosie may be missing her old friends and social activities. He should ask parents and teachers questions such as â€Å"has she made any friends at all yet†, or â€Å"is she still involved in the sports activities that she used to enjoy†? It is very likely that Rosie is just experiencing a temporary loss of a sense of stability (of a predictable environment and routine) a nd the loss of her friends due to the move. Once she is used to her new situation, she will most likely be able to adapt, make new friends, and catch up with school work. In the case of Marco, the 17 year old high school student who is considering dropping out of school, Dr. Venneman may have to explore his school and police records and conduct interviews with his family and teachers. After ruling out a medical condition or a possible criminal past, the clinician should ask Marco and everyone concerned a number of questions, such as â€Å"how long has the lack of interest in school work persisted and what was done to intervene†, â€Å"what are his peers like†, and â€Å"what does Marco want for his future†? Fortunately, Marco is a short time away from graduating from high school and the clinician should put emphasis on finding a quick and solid solution to jump-start Marco’s motivation. In all of these cases, it is important to realize that any tests themselves are just one tool (or source) for gathering data. Each case history is of importance as it provides the clinician a context for understanding each client’s current issue and with this knowledge the test scores become meaningful. A number of ethical guidelines have emerged for conducting formal assessments, ensuring â€Å"that appropriate professional relationships and procedures are developed and maintained† (Groth-Marnat, 2003, p.48). When assessing all of the above clients, the clinician must carefully consider what constitutes his or her ideal practice. There will always be difficulties involving assessment procedures. The main issues are the â€Å"use of tests in inappropriate contexts, confidentiality, cultural bias, invasion of privacy, and the continued use of tests that are inadequately validated† (Groth-Marnat, 2003, p.48); consequently, this has resulted in many restrictions as to the use of certain tests, increased skepticism, and a greater need for clarification within regarding ethical standards within the field of psychology (Groth-Marnat, 2003). As in Rosie’s and Marco’s case, the clinician would be concerned about dealing with minors, especially if one was diagnosed with a disability, and should obtain consent to perform the assessments through a parent or legal guardian. As described by Steege Watson (2013) â€Å"when information is systematically collected and analyzed for the express purpose of determining behavioral function and the development of a BIP, it should be considered an evaluation and parental permission obtained† (p.34). Furthermore, it would be unethical of Dr. Goldstein, for example, to reveal information about Brian or Cindy to others, unless the clients are posing a risk to themselves or others (such as a threat of suicide or homicide) (Steege Watson, 2013). In the case of Cindy, Dr. Goldstein could begin with a semi-structured interview format and list a sequence of questions that he would like to ask her. The first series of questions could include: â€Å"What are some important concerns that you may have?† â€Å"Could you describe the most important of these concerns?† â€Å"When did the difficulty first begin?† â€Å"How often does it occur?† â€Å"Have there been any changes in how often it has occurred?† â€Å"What happens after the behavior(s) occurs?† (Groth-Marnat, 2003, p. 79-80). Since clients vary in their personal characteristics (age, degree of cooperation, educational level, etc.) and type of problem (childhood difficulties, legal problems, psychological problems), the questions should vary from person to person (Groth-Marnat, 2003). In Cindy’s case, the above questions are appropriate to ask. The series of questions should not be rigid, but asked with a certain level of flexibility, in order to explore relevant but unique issues that may arise during the interview. It is difficult to speculate on the conduction and outcome of the interview, because different theoretical perspectives will exist when it comes to clinician-client interaction between Dr. Goldstein and Cindy. It is important to note, that, a successful interview is achieved first and foremost with a proper attitude of the clinician, and not so much by what he or she says or does. The interviewer should always express â€Å"sincerity, acceptance, understanding, genuine interest, warmth , and a positive regard for the worth of the person. If clinicians do not demonstrate these qualities, they are unlikely to achieve the goals of the interview, no matter how these are defined† (Groth-Marnat, 2003, p. 80). Dr. Goldstein should be aware of the interviewer effect because his interview with Cindy is a social interaction and his appearance may influence her answers. This is a common problem and such bias can render the results of the study invalid. For example, body language, age, gender, ethnicity, or social status of the interviewer can create this effect. If Dr. Goldstein happens to be of the same age and ethnicity of Cindy’s ex-husband, with a similar social status and body language, she may not answer all the questions without bias. Unfortunately, there is always going to be such a possibility when conducting an interview. After Dr. Goldstein has concluded the interview with Cindy, he will then provide an outline of the behavioral assessment, similar to the behavioral interview. He will initially provide Cindy with an overview of what has to be accomplished with a clearly detailed specification of her problem behavior. Dr. Goldstein will identify the target behavior(s) and define them in exact behavioral terms. For example, Cindy’s target behaviors may be excessive worry and inability to relax as part of an anxiety disorder. The clinician will then determine the problem frequency, duration, and intensity (â€Å"How many times has the feeling of â€Å"going crazy† occurred today,† â€Å"How long did it persist†, etc.). He will then identify the conditions in which the problems (worrying, not being able to relax, and so on) occur â€Å"in terms of its antecedents, behaviors, and consequences† (Groth-Marnat, 2003, p. 114). Dr. Goldstein will determine the desired level of Cindy’s performance and consider an estimate of how realistic this is for her with possible deadlines. He will definitely identify Cindy’s strengths and also suggest procedures for measuring her relevant behaviors. He will decipher who will record what and how will it be recorded, when and where. Then, Dr. Goldstein will determine how the effectiveness of the program should be evaluated. After completing the discussion of areas, he will summarize it to ensure that Cindy understands and agrees. Again, this outline should not be rigid and should be used as a general guideline (Groth-Marnat, 2003). In Cindy’s case, the behavioral interview itself may have presented enough material for an adequate assessment but some form of actual behavioral observation may be required before, during, and after treatment. A method for observing the behavior(s) is often decided on during the initial behavioral interview. While interviews primarily serve to obtain verbal information from clients, behavioral observation conducted to actually carry out certain techniques and strategies of measuring relevant areas of behavior that were previously discussed during the behavioral interview. With Cindy, a behavioral observation may be useful, although it is usually used more frequently in cases such as assessing young children, the developmentally disabled, or resistant clients, but it would be interesting to obtain interval recording, narrative recording, ratings recording, and event recording. Dr. Goldstein may ask Cindy to observe her relevant target behaviors. He and Cindy will have to decid e on the number of target behaviors to record and the complexity of a recording method, as the task will have to remain manageable and not â€Å"overly complex† (Groth-Marnat, 2003). Target behavior(s) should be identified in a narrative description of Cindy’s problems and later specified by determining the antecedents and consequences related to her problem behavior. All of her behaviors need to be measured in an objective manner, with complete definitions that enable concise observations of the measures of the behaviors. Such definitions should not include abstract terms, such as absentmindedness or sadness, and instead concentrate on specific behaviors. Furthermore, the definitions should be easy to read. When Dr. Goldstein is measuring behavioral frequencies, he must clearly define when the behaviors begin and end. It can be difficult to measure less clearly defined behaviors. The recordings should measure the duration of behaviors and their intensity. For example, how fast does Cindy’s heart beat during an anxiety/panic attack in which she feels that she is losing her mind and how long did this heart rate remain? Measurements as such will deter mine how urgent and strong a treatment approach should be (Groth-Marnat, 2003). Of further importance is the setting of a behavioral observation and it can range from a natural setting to a highly structured one. Natural, or in vivo, settings for Cindy can include her home, the park, or the mall. Such natural settings are the most effective ones when trying to assess high-frequency or depressive behaviors, as in Cindy’s case. Unfortunately, observations in natural settings require an extensive amount of time but are useful when the amount of change the client has made is measured after a treatment. Dr. Goldstein may decide to create a structured environment, such as a role play, that bring out specific types of behaviors. Such environments can be important for infrequent behaviors but this type of setting may not generalize into Cindy’s actual life. The training of the observer has to include a clear understanding of measuring the behaviors, emphasizing on taking objective and accurate recordings. The clinician should take precautions to avoid obse rver error, through bias, lapses in concentration, leniency, and discussing of data with other observers. Reliability may be checked by â€Å"comparing the degree of agreement between different observers rating the same behaviors† (Groth-Marnat, 2003, p.116). After gathering enough information about their clients’ history and pertinent data during behavioral interviews and assessments, clinicians have a clear picture of each case and will be able to design and implement the correct treatment plan. References Groth-Marnat, Gary (2003). Handbook of Psychological Assessment 4th ed. John Wiley Sons. Retrieved on 20 February 2015 from http://marijag.home.mruni.eu/wp-content/uploads/2009/02/handbook-of-psychological-assessment-fourth-edition.pdf. Steege, M.W., Watson, T.S. (2013). Conducting School-Based Functional Behavioral Assessments, Second Edition. Guilford Press. VitalBook file.

Legitimate Authority in the International System

Legitimate Authority in the International System Researchers and students of international relations are always faced with questions regarding if there is any legitimate authority in the international system. Other questions that these people are always faced with, is whether they can denote that the behavior of states is always motivated by factors such as power or even wealth. Furthermore, questions emerge on whether the interests of states are always the same, over a period of time and space. Mitchell (2012) denotes that this debate about the nature of authority in the international arena is always theoretical, focusing only on the contemporary international system. This paper critically examines the concept that there is no legitimate authority in the international system. In answering this question, the researcher will have to use a variety of theories, such as realism and liberalism. This paper takes the stand that the international system is anarchical in nature, and there is no legitimate authority. This concept of legitimate authority refers to the justification of people to have real power over other people, as well as the decisions they make. Mitchell (2012) further claims that legitimate authority is always exercised by the government, and the government derives justification in the use of such power because the power is given by the laws of the country. Krehoff (2008) agrees on the fact that there is no legitimate authority in the international system. This is because the international system is characterized by the interaction of states, and each state has its own interests and objectives in regard to the interaction (Bromley, Clarke, Hinchliffe and Taylor, 2009). One of the methods in which social scientists use to explain the relations and power in the international system is through the use of liberalism theory (Goldstein, 2912). Liberalism is a political concept that advocates for the freedom and rights of individuals. This theoretical framework recognizes the role of the state, as well as other actors in the international system in promoting democracy, freedom of expression, as well as other rights of individuals within the society (Baylis and Smith, 2001). Karp (2009) observes that this theoretical framework encourages participation in the international system, and for the purposes of promoting peace and stability. On this basis, the international system is characterized by inter-governmental organizations, multi-national companies, and non-governmental organizations. These institutions operating in the international system are responsible for shaping the various policies of states (Bromley, Clarke, Hinchliffe and Taylor, 2009). For instance institutions such as the United Nations, is responsible for discussing various issues that threaten the World Peace and coming up with a resolution that each and every member of the organization needs to follow. For instance in 2011, the UN Security Council passed a resolution that there was a need of intervening in the Libyan civil war, for purposes of preventing president Gaddafi from killing his own people Goldstein, (2012). Members of the Security Council, including the US, Britain, France, as well as other countries such as Canada, etc were able to provide equipments that could be used to enforce the decision by the UN Security council. Cornut (2010) denotes that this is an example of a legitimate authority, and this is because a legitimate authority is always justifiable by the rules guiding the operation of an institution. For example, the charter of the UN establishes the Security Council, with five permanent members who hold veto powers, and other non-permanent members. The charter denotes that the decision of this council are always legitimate, and supported by the laws of the charter in which all UN members are signatories. However, Baylis and Smith (2001) disagrees with the notion that the UN Security Council is a legitimate authority. Basu (2012) denotes that the UN Security council only serves the interests of the major powers holding the veto power. This is because the countries under consideration will always veto a policy developed that is against them. Basu (2012) further explains that the main reason as to why the Security Council attacked the government of Gaddafi was because he had a bad historical relation with western countries such as the United States, Britain, as well as France. On this basis, attacking Libya, and removing the government of Gaddafi would only serve the interests of countries such as the United States, Britain, and France. It is important to understand that these countries hold a veto powers in the UN Security Council. To prove his point, Basu (2012) identifies the structural adjustments policies brought forth by the World Bank, and IMF, during the 1980s, and the 1990s. Basu (2012) explains that these policies forced third world countries to liberalize their economies, even when they w ere not ready for such liberalization. Other demands initiated by World Bank, and IMF included the introduction of austerity measures. These measures forced the target governments to reduce spending on education, health, transport, security, and other important aspects of the economies of these countries. Cornut (2010) denotes that these austerity measures were responsible for the negative growth of these countries, as opposed to an increase in the growth of their economies. Goldstein, (2012) denotes that the World Bank, and the IMF are institutions of liberalism, and on this basis, they failed to promote equality of human rights, in regard to trade and economic stability. Instead, through their structural adjustment policies, IMF and World Bank are responsible for eroding the economies of these states. Furthermore, Goldstein, (2012) believes denotes that IMF and World Bank are controlled by its major donors, which include France, USA, Britain, as well as Japan. On this note, the policies developed by World Bank and IMF a re aimed at protecting the interests of their major financers. Dominese (2010) further denotes that the affairs of World Bank and IMF are always conducted in great secrecy, and there is no transparency while developing their policies. One of the characteristics of a legitimate authority is that it has transparency in the manner in which they develop policies. Calhoun (2002) believes that this transparency lacks in these global institutions. Dominese (2010) further asserts that a legitimate international institution will always seek to serve the interest of the international community, and not only a particular section of the international community. On this basis, institutions such as IMF and World Bank have failed to establish a legitimate international authority. Realism is a theoretical framework that supports the notion that a legitimate international authority does not exist (Goldstein, 2012). One of the principle arguments of realism is that the international system is anarchical in nature. This is because states are the major actors in the international system, and on this basis, there is no actor that has the capability of regulating the affairs of the states. Krehoff (2008) further explains that under realism, states will only relate with other states, in pursuance of their interests, and not the interest of the global good. Dominese (2010) defines international anarchy as a concept whereby the international system does not have a leader, i.e. a sovereign worldwide government does not exist. On this basis, Dominese (2010) denotes that the international system does not have a hierarchical authority which has the capability of enforcing laws, and resolving disputes, just like states in the domestic politics. This observation by Dominese (2010) is correct, and this is because legal international institutions such as the International Criminal Court (ICC) only depends on the goodwill of signatory states to arrest and handover people indicted by the court. On this basis, Goldstein, (2012) denotes that without cooperation from member states, ICC won’t be able to carry out its mandate. Tight (2005) denotes that this lack of an hierarchical structure at the international system, is one of the main reasons as to why institutions formed by the principles of liberalism will always serve the interests of rich states of the world. Basu (2012) further denotes that the accumulation of power and the need for survival are the major factors that influence the behavior of states in the international system. On this note, states will carry out any activity aimed at meeting their objectives. This creates suspicion at the international stage, amongst the various states, and because of these suspicions that exists between various states; it is difficult to create an international legitimate authority. For instance, the League of Nations failed to be a legitimate authority because of suspicions between the various states that formed the League of Nations. Based on these arguments of realism, Goldstein, (2012) explains that a legitimate international authority does not exist. In conclusion, realism is the major theory that recognizes the fact that a legitimate international authority does not exist. This is because the major arguments contained under realism, is that the international system is anarchic in nature, and the relations that occurs at the international system, are always aimed at protecting the self interests of the state under consideration. Due to this nature of states in the international arena, there is a lot of suspicion regarding the activities of states, and this makes the international system to be anarchic in nature. Because of this anarchic nature in the international system, it is very difficult for a legitimate authority to exist. To create a legitimate authority therefore, it is important to create a single interest that states should pursue in the international arena. This is a concept that is very difficult, and impossible to achieve. There are two conflicting perspective on this concept of a legitimate international authority. This is because the principles of liberalism supports this notion that there is a legitimate authority and this is in form of the various institutions formed by the states, and other international bodies. Bibliography: Basu, R. (2012). International politics concepts, theories and issues. New Delhi: SAGE  Publications. Baylis, J., Smith, S. (2001). The globalization of world politics: an introduction to  international relations (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bromley, S., Clarke, J., Hinchliffe, S., Taylor, S. (2009). Exploring social lives. Milton  Keynes: Open University. Calhoun, L. (2002). Legitimate Authority and Just War in the Modern World. Peace Change,  27(1), 37-62.   Cornut, J. (2010). David A. BALDWIN (dir.), 2008, Theories of International Relations, coll.  The Library of Essays in International Relations, Farnham, Ashgate, 725 p.. Etudes  Internationales , 41(1), 98.   Dominese, G. (2010). Theories of International Relations: from an American Science Towards a  Pluralism of Thought. Transition Studies Review, 16(4), 813-828. Goldstein, J. S. (2012). International relations (10. ed.). Boston: Pearson/Longman. Karp, D. J. (2009). Transnational corporations in ‘bad states’: human rights duties, legitimate  authority and the rule of law in international political theory. International Theory, 1(01),  87. Krehoff, B. (2008). Legitimate Political Authority and Sovereignty: Why States Cannot be the  Whole Story. Res Publica, 14(4), 283-297. Mitchell, S. M. (2012). Guide to the scientific study of international processes. Hoboken, N.J.:  Wiley. Tight, M. (2005). International relations. Amsterdam: Elsevier JAI.

The Struggle Towards a Democratic Nation Essay -- essays papers

The Struggle Towards a Democratic Nation Education Position Paper The Struggle Towards a Democratic Nation Imperialism of one sort or another has been occurring for centuries around the world. In the U.S. a specific form of imperialism is in full effect but is less noticeable than the normative physical imperialism. Linguistic imperialism occurs when a dominant group imposes their language on another, and within the United States this imperialism has been occurring through English. English is the language set up by the American society to be the dominant official language. America is supposed to be the melting pot of different languages and cultures but there is a specific connection between English speakers and dominance over non-English speakers. From this relationship a hierarchy develops in which those who are the representative English speaker in America (Caucasian), are more privileged and more recognized in society than non-English speakers normally of color. Bilingual Education brings this topic to light because it is a governmental supported idea that basically forces non-Englis h speakers to learn English. As children grow out of bilingual education they seem to have two choices; move away from their own culture and assimilate, or retain their culture but don‘t be recognized by society. Of course these choices aren’t always so clear-cut and often the results are varied, but a conflict remains. This topic is explored in Americo Parede’s novel George Washington Gomez, when the question is raised, is it possible for a non-white non-English speaking person to become educated in America without losing their ethnic identity. The main character in this book Gualinto explores what it means to be Mexican-American and what that term means to him after being educated. Also my own experiences of the effects of linguistic imperialism and bilingual education in the California school system have lent to this paper. Ultimately all this information asks the question: Does the dominant white power structure and bilingual education in the U.S. allow non-E nglish speakers, normally of color, to retain their cultural identity? The migration of the English to America and the eventual formation of the colonies led to the construction of whiteness as an ideology of privilege and dominance. Literature from this period shows how whiteness became the represen... ...tural identity. The English language and linguistic imperialism attribute to this situation. While bilingual education is a way to assimilate non-English speakers into American culture, English and its place in the white dominant society, creates a possibility of forgetting ones culture or even self hatred. Like Gualinto many students find that the only real way to become upwardly mobile is to completely forget their heritage and become utterly American even if that means becoming â€Å"whitewashed†. Educators and enlightened minds alike will need to observe data and strive diligently toward a nation not dominated by white elitists but by open-minded educated people intent on the basic tenement of U.S. Democracy: Equality. Bibliography: Works Cited Babb, Valerie. Whiteness Visible. New York: New York University Press, 1998 7 April 2002 Mclaren, Peter, and Carlos J. Ovando. The Politics of Multiculturalism and Bilingual Education. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2000. Paredes, Americo. George Washington Gomez. Houston: Arte Publico, 1990. United States. Dept. of Justice. Immigration and Naturalization Service. Law Enforcement and Border Management. 1999. 1 April 2002.

Hemingway’s In Our Time (CRH) Essay -- Hemingway In Our Time Essays

Hemingway’s In Our Time (CRH) In Our Time was accepted with great critical acclaim upon its publication in 1924. Widely lauded and recognized as the work of a rising literary star, as Herschel Brickell said, â€Å"Mr. Hemingway’s book carries on its dust-covers the enthusiastic recommendations of nearly everybody,† and, â€Å"The men who praise In Our Time know good work when they see it.† It was both a continuation of certain literary trends that had begun to develop themselves as well as something possessed of itself, original, striking, and new. The work of Sherwood Anderson and others had begun to shift literary perspective toward the more dirty and real, but as Louis Kronenberger wrote of the book in the Saturday Review of Literature, â€Å"It has sound merit of a personal, non-derivative nature; it shows no important affinity with any other writer, and it represents the achievement of unique personal experience.† His style, from the overall presentation of the book to the ways in which he constructed phrases, thoughts, perspectives, were seen as fresh and interesting. The stories themselves were met with a kind of lingering uncertainty. â€Å"Of ‘stories’ in the commonly accepted sense of the word there are few,† Brickell wrote, â€Å"Most are psychological episodes, incidents, sketches.† Or as the New York Times Book Review put it, â€Å"Not so much short stories, as preludes to a mood.† His style was described as â€Å"an attempt to get at minds and souls and what goes on within.† Also as â€Å"oblique, inferential, suggestive rather than overt, explicit, explanatory.† And yet somehow, â€Å"Mr. Hemingway can pack a whole character into a phrase, an entire situation into a sentence or two.† ... .... Ashley later mentions, â€Å"In Our Time is admittedly a slight and fragmentary enterprise. It is, however, a promise, almost an assurance of richer and more important things to come.† And perhaps Time said it best, â€Å"Make no mistake, Ernest Hemingway is somebody; a new, honest, un-‘literary’ transcriber of life—a writer.† Bibliography Herschel Brickell. â€Å"Tales Galore by Writers From Lands Far and Near.† New York Evening Post Literary Review, October 17, 1925, p. 3. New York Times Book Review, October 18, 1925, p. 8. Paul Rosenfeld. â€Å"Tough Earth.† New Republic, 45 (November 25, 1925), 22-23. Schuyler Ashley. Kansas City Star, December 12, 1925, p. 6. Time, 7 (January18, 1926), 38. Louis Kronenberger. â€Å"A New Novelist.† Saturday Review of Literature, 2 (February 13, 1926), 555. www.davidgagne.net/hem/ www.hemingwaysociety.org/virthem.htm

Goup Decision Making Essay -- Managing Management Business Essays

Group Decision Making Let?s define what is Group Decision Making, decisions made by committees, think tanks, teams and groups. They may include borrowers, lenders, producers, buyers, scientists and other experts, environmentalists, and real estate developers and so on. Decision making skills is one of the most important aspects of management. It involves personal and interpersonal skills, fact finding, logical thinking, creativity, analytical ability, sensitivity to others and assertiveness What are the key steps in making a decision? Whether decisions are straightforward or complex, a systematic approach will lead to success. ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Setting objectives An objective is a specific step, a milestone, which enables you to accomplish a goal. Setting objectives involves a continuous process of research and decision-making. Knowledge of yourself and your unit is a vital starting point in setting objectives. Strategic planning takes place at the highest levels; other managers are involved with operational planning. The first step in operational planning is defining objectives - the result expected by the end of the budget (or other designated) cycle. Setting right objectives is critical for effective performance management. Such objectives as higher profits, shareholder value, and customer satisfaction may be admirable, but they don't tell managers what to do. They fail to specify priorities and focus. Such objectives don't map the journey ahead - the discovery of better value and solutions for the customer. The objectives must be focused on a result, not an activity, be consistent, be specific, be measurable, be related to time, be attain able. ?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Collecting information There are several ways to gather information. You can collect information from people, documents, performance data, and observation of events. Also, there are a number of methods for gathering information, including traditional measurement approaches such as tests and ratings, as well as more investigative procedures such as observation, interviews, case studies, and literature review. Each of the chapters in this handbook contains key criteria for the development and use of an effective technology infrastructure. If you employ these criteria as a guide, the first part of your evaluation will really be an audit in the sense that you will be looking retrospectively at the work ... ...sunderstood and sometimes resentful. Second, the minority members often feel that the voting has created two camps within the group and that these camps are now in a win-lose competition: The minority feels that their camp lost the first round, but that it is just a matter of time until it can regroup, pick up some support and win the next time a vote comes up. In other words, voting creates coalitions, and the preoccupation of the losing coalition is not how to implement what the majority wants, but how to win the next battle. If voting is to be used, the group must be sure that it has created a climate in which members feel they have had their day in court--and where all members feel obligated to go along with the majority decision. Summary Complicated issues often require the creation of a complex group and cooperation of the group's members to resolve the issues. In order to achieve consensus between members, the group should employ a facilitator and apply rules and guidelines of behavior. The chances that a diverse group can attain the goal of consensus are greatly increased when the group follows an established set of rules with the assistance of a facilitator.

The anecdotes A Good Man is Hard to Find and The Comforts of Home will

The anecdotes A Good Man is Hard to Find and The Comforts of Home will be examined with respect to color Flannery O’Conner – Color Connotations The anecdotes A Good Man is Hard to Find and The Comforts of Home will be examined with respect to color connotation and imagery. This essay will discuss how colors affect the reader’s abstract senses and emotions. Colors are also used to suggest the nature of the piece and characters within. Various cultures perceive colors differently which could change a reader’s perspective. A Good Man is Hard to Find is told from the grandmother’s point of view. The first significant color is describing her son’s wife. â€Å"†¦ a young woman is slacks, whose face was as broad and innocent as a cabbage and was tied around with a green head-kerchief that had two points on top like rabbit’s ears.† The use of this color is ambiguous. It could be construed as either positive or negative. The positive is that it may be suggesting the woman’s youth, fertility and vigor. The negative connotation is the grandmother’s jealousy and envy towards her youthfulness. There is apparent animosity between the two. When the grandmother suggests visiting Tennessee â€Å"The children’s mother didn’t seem to hear her†¦Ã¢â‚¬  The grandmother never speaks directly to the mother. She repeatedly refers to the woman’s attire with a definite manner of superiority. â€Å"[The next day] the children’s mother still had on slacks and still had her head tied up in a green kerchief, but the grandmother had on a navy blue straw sailor hat with a bunch of white violets on the brim and a navy blue dress with small white dots in the print. Her collars and cuffs with white organdy trimmed with lace and at her neckline she had... ...the color yellow appears. â€Å"[The dog] opened one yellow eye, took him in, and closed it again.† This indicates and Thomas’s cowardice and avarice. He is greedy because he wants his house and mother’s attention. Violence shortly ensues. Black is related to Sarah twice; although there is only one reference to black regarding Thomas. Thrice were both characters correlated with red, demonstrating they mutually played a role in the death of the mother. Colors are in effect word-pictures which work by a method of association. Images and emotions are created when readers make connotations of colors within the text. In United States of America, white is a representation of purity, peace, cleanliness, innocence and marriage; however, in China, white is symbolic of mourning and death. Universally, blue has the fewest negative connotations across various cultures.